US_Ch11_Homework-1

=**U.S. History Chapter 11 Homework #1**= Answer the following questions on notebook paper:

1. Analyze //Baker v. Carr//, 1962 and //Reynolds v. Sims//, 1964. Although many more Americans were living in urban areas, most states had not redrawn their political districts to reflect this shift. This gave rural voters more political influence than urban voters. In //Baker v. Carr//, the Supreme Court ruled on whether federal courts had jurisdiction in lawsuits seeking to force states to redraw their electoral districts. In //Reynolds v. Sims//, the court decided whether uneven electoral districts violated the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. How did the court rule in these cases? In //Baker v. Carr//, the Supreme Court ruled on whether federal courts had jurisdiction in lawsuits seeking to force states to redraw their electoral districts. In //Reynolds v. Sims//, the court rules that the in equality of representation in the Alabama legislature did violate the equal protection clause. These rulings forced states to reapportion their political districts according to the principle of "one person, one vote." COURT'S OPINION: "Legislators represent people, not trees or acres. Legislators are elected by voters, not farms or cities or economic interests. As long as ours is a representative form of government...the right to elect legislators in a free and unimpaired fashion is a bedrock of our political system...And, if a state should provide that the votes of citizens in one part of the state should be given two times, or five times, or ten times the weight of votes of citizens in another part of the State, it could hardly be contended that the right to vote of those residing in the disfavored areas had not been effectively diluted." DISSENTING VIEW: "As of 1961, the Constitutions of all but 11 States...recognize bases of apportionment other than geographic spread of population...The consequence of today's decision is that...state courts, are given blanket authority and the constitutional duty to supervise apportionment...It is difficult to imagine a more intolerable and inappropriate interference by the judiciary with the independent legislatures of the States...The court says only that 'legislators represent people, not trees or acres,'...But it is surely equally obvious...that legislators can represent their electors only be speaking for the interests - economic, social, political - many of which do reflect the place where the electors live...These decisions also cut deeply into the fabric of our federalism."
 * How would you have ruled in //Baker v. Carr// and in //Reynolds v. Sims//? Why?**

2. In a series of rulings, the Supreme Court began to use the 14th amendment to apply the Bill of Rights to the states. Originally, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government. The states had their own bill of rights. The 14th amendment read "no state shall...deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without the due process of law. In //Mapp v. Ohio//, the Supreme Court ruled that state courts could not consider evidence obtained in violation of the federal Constitution. In //Gideon v. Wainwright//, the Supreme Court ruled that a defendant on trial had the right to an attorney. In //Escobedo v. Illinois//, the Supreme Court ruled that a person has the right to remain silent. In //Miranda v. Arizona//, the court ruled that a person must have his/her rights read to them when arrested. The Supreme Court of the 1960s also push away the Judeo-Christian principles that the nation was founded on for a more secular society. In //Engle v. Vitale//, the Supreme Court banned school prayer, even optional school prayer in public schools. In //Abbington School District v. Schempp//, the court struck down Bible readings and the Lord's prayer. This cases all took place under Chief Justice Earl Warren. **Which was a landmark decision of the Earl Warren Supreme Court in the 1960s? (A) everyone had the right to an attorney (B) suspects have to be informed of the right to remain silent (C) schools could no longer have optional prayers in school (D) no Bible readings in schools (E) all (F) none**

3. Cold War tensions between the U.S. and USSR fueled the space race. Both countries vied for superiority in aeronautical technology and dominance in space exploration. NASA recruited seven astronauts for its first manned space program. Each astronaut would ride in a //Mercury// capsule atop an ICBM reconfigured to lift them into space. The first American astronaut to ride into space in the capsule was Alan Shepard. John Glenn became the first American to be sent into orbit. In 1969, the first man on the moon was Neil Armstrong. **In the space race under JFK, John - was the first man into orbit; JFK's goal was to get to the moon, which was done in 1969 (JFK no longer in office) with N--- A aboard //Apollo// 11.**

4. JFK was committed to fighting poverty in the world and set up the Peace Corps, which sent Americans on humanitarian missions to under-developed nations. However, the Cold War consumed much of the Kennedy Administration. The first crisis took place in Cuba. In 1959, the Communists led by Fidel Castro seized power in Cuba. Under Eisenhower, the CIA began to train Cuban exiles to go back to Cuba to overthrow Castro. Kennedy continued the program and gave the mission the go ahead. However, JFK withheld American air support since he didn't want to have America appear to be involved. The Cuban exiles therefore failed in its attempt to retake Cuba. This made relations between the U.S. and Cuba even worse and part of the Cold War. A year later, the U.S. found out from U-2 surveillance that the Soviets were putting missiles into Cuba, in what was called the Cuban Missile Crisis. It appeared the Nikita Khrushchev was challenging Kennedy. A year ago the Soviets constructed the Berlin Wall to keep people in East Berlin from going to West Berlin. The "Iron Curtain" was physical wall. Kennedy condemned it, but didn't prevent it. Khrushchev thought he could overpower JFK. However, Kennedy didn't back down in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy stood firm and was able to negotiate a deal that prevented nuclear war and removed the missiles. **Which is NOT true of JFK's Cold War record? (A) The Bay of Pigs invasion failed to overthrow Castro (B) Decisions in the Cuban Missile Crisis kept the world from nuclear war (C) The Berlin Wall became a Cold War symbol (D) The Peace Corps was a post-WWII European economic aid plan (E) all (F) none**

5. President Johnson launched the "War on Poverty" starting in 1964. From 1960 through 1968, the poverty level steadily dropped. The Great Society was implemented in the mid to late 1960s. From then to the present, TRILLIONS of dollars have been spent to help improve poverty. The first chart shows the poverty rate since 1960. The second chart shows the rate of spending on those in poverty since 1960.
 * Looking at the charts - trillions of dollars have been spent from the __mid-1960s__ to now, but poverty has (A) gotten much worse (B) gotten much better (C) stayed about the same (D) doesn't exist anymore (E) all (F) none**

6. When LBJ was re-elected in 1964, he began a series of initiatives called the Great Society. These programs were government run programs using tax dollars for society. LBJ had ideas that would benefit those with needs. In the long run, these programs led to a major increase in the size, spending, and power of the government as well as a massive increase in government-reliance. Massive government spending on public schools began under LBJ. In reality, education is to be a state-by-state issue, but since this massive spending under LBJ, the federal government has increased its power over education consistently. Medicare, which is health care for the elderly began. Medicaid, which is health care for those with low income also began. Head Start also began, which was federally funded preschool for low income children. **The Great Society included M-- or health care for the elderly, M--- or health care for those in poverty, and H--- S or preschool for low income children.**

7. When Rose Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, it appeared the Civil Rights Movement led by Martin Luther King Jr. was ready to push for equality. The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a method of King's civil disobedience in which blacks walked instead of taking the bus to show the bus system the money they would lose. Later, many blacks went on Freedom Rides to sit in segregated bus terminals. In 1960, the sit-in movement began in Greensboro, North Carolina at a lunch counter at Woolworth's when four blacks went into the whites only lunch counter and took up seats. In a few days, blacks were taking 60 of the 63 seats. **What was the type of nonviolent protests that started at a Greensboro, NC lunch counter? (A) bus boycott (B) Civil Rights Movement (C) Freedom Rides (D) sit-ins (E) all (F) none**

8. Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested in Birmingham for a nonviolent protest in which he was breaking segregation laws to show an injustice to blacks. He was criticized for breaking the laws. In response, he wrote //Letter from a Birmingham Jail//, which is considered one of the best statements of the movement's goal. King wrote: "Since we so diligently urge people to obey the Supreme Court's decision of 1954 outlawing segregation in the public schools, at first glance it may seem rather paradoxical for us consciously to break laws. One may well ask "How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others?" The answer lies in the fact that there are two types of laws, just and unjust...and one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with St. Augustine that 'an unjust law is no law at all.' ...Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust. All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority...An unjust law is a code that a numerical or power majority group compels a minority group to obey but does not make binding on itself. This is difference made legal. By the same token, a just law is a code that a majority compels a minority to follow and that it is willing to follow itself. This is sameness made legal." **King distinguishes between just and unjust laws saying an unjust law (A) locks up blacks (B) hurts blacks (C) degrades human personality (D) weren't approved by the NAACP (E) all (F) none**

9. For a long time the NAACP helped fight for the rights of blacks and often took discrimination suits to the courts. Martin Luther King Jr. and his SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) continued to gain momentum looking to overturn the Jim Crow laws. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act passed, which made discrimination and segregation illegal. This meant that the laws that states had in the Jim Crow Era that required segregation, were no longer allowed. This law gave citizens of all races and nationalities equal access to public facilities. The U.S. Attorney General was given more authority to enforce school desegregation. In addition, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was set up as an agency in the federal government to monitor the ban on job discrimination by race, religion, gender, and national origin. **What became illegal due to the Civil Rights Act of 1964? (A) charging a tax to vote and charging blacks a higher tax (B) Jim Crow laws (C) New Deal public works (D) Reconstruction policies (E) all (F) none**

10. **Which government agency was formed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to stop job discrimination? (A) Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (B) NAACP (C) SCLC (D) Civil Rights Commission (E) all (F) none**

11. Many young African Americans began to call for black power, a term that had many meanings. A few interpreted it to mean that physical self-defense and even violence were acceptable - a clear rejection of King's philosophy. To others, like Stokely Carmichael, this term meant that African Americans should control the social, political, and economic direction of their struggle. Black power emphasized racial distinction rather than assimilation - the process by which a minority group adapts to the dominant culture in a society. Malcolm X was one who grew out of the movement and became part of the Black Muslim movement. **Stokely Carmichael favored blacks using violence, beginning which movement? (A) Civil Rights (B) black power (C) Black Muslims (D) NAACP (E) all (F) none**

12. The situation in Vietnam was one that grew as a concern throughout the 1950s and 1960s. The Vietnamese did not want to be ruled by the French after WWII. The French were going to allow elections, however a group of communists in North Vietnam led by Ho Chi Minh were poised to take control. The U.S. already saw communism spread to East Asia under Mao Tse-tung in China in 1949 and helped prevent communist North Korea from taking over South Korea in the early 1950s. In 1954, the city of Dien Bien Phu fell to the communists and Ho Chi Minh, which marked the start of armed conflict in Vietnam (U.S. not yet involved). The U.S. would support South Vietnam led by Ngo Dinh Diem, even though he was not popular with the Vietnamese people. Ho Chi Minh had formed a group called the Vietminh that was fighting for control. In South Vietnam, there were communists called the Vietcong, which fought along with the Vietminh against Ngo Dinh Diem and western supporters. These Vietnamese Communist groups fought using guerilla tactics, which proved to be somewhat effective in the jungle, at least until the U.S. got involved with its war technology. The Domino Theory was leading American policy - the theory that if one nation in East Asia fell to communism, then others would fall too, like dominos. **Who was the Communist leader of North Vietnam? (A) Ngo Dinh Diem (B) Mao Tse-tung (C) Ho Chi Minh (D) Dien Bien Phu (E) all (F) none**

13. **Who were the South Vietnamese Communists? (A) Guerillas (B) Vietcong (C) Vietminh (D) Vietcommunists (E) all (F) none**

14. On August 2, 1964, President Johnson announced that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had fired on two American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, the president reported that another similar attack had taken place. Johnson was campaigning for the presidency and was very sensitive to accusations of being soft on communism. He insisted that north Vietnam's attacks were unprovoked and immediately ordered American aircraft to attack North Vietnamese ships and naval facilities. Johnson did not reveal that the American warships had been helping the South Vietnamese conduct electronic spying and commando raids against North Vietnam. Johnson then asked Congress for the authority to defend American forces and American allies in Southeast Asia. Congress agreed to Johnson's request with little debate. On August 7, 1964, the Senate and House passed the Tonkin Resolution, authorizing the president to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." With only two dissenting votes, Congress had, in effect, handed its war powers over to the president. **How did the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution impact American government? (A) began war in Vietnam (B) President got the war making power from Congress (C) Congress would decide on going to war (D) it didn't impact the government just the war (E) all (F) none**

15. Should America fight in Vietnam? As the war in Vietnam dragged on, Americans became increasingly divided about the nation's role in the conflict. In January 1966, George Ball, under-secretary of state to President Johnson, delivered an address to indicate "how we got into Vietnam and why we must stay." George Kennan, a former ambassador to the Soviet Union, testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in that same year arguing that American involvement in Vietnam was "something we would not choose deliberately if the choice were ours to make all over again today." YES (America should fight in Vietnam) - George Ball: "//The conflict in Vietnam is a product of the great shifts and changes triggered by the Second World War...The Soviet Union under Stalin exploited the confusion to push out the perimeter of its power and influence in an effort to extend the outer limits of Communist domination be force or the threat of force...The bloody encounters in Vietnam...are thus in a real sense battles and skirmishes in a continuing war to prevent one Communist power after another from violating internationally recognized boundary lines fixing the outer limits of Communist dominion...In the long run our hopes for the people of South Vietnam reflect our hopes for people everywhere. What we seek is a world living in peace and freedom.//" NO (American should not fight in Vietnam - George Kennan: "//Vietnam is not a region of major military-industrial importance...Even a situation in which South Vietnam was controlled exclusively by Vietcong...would not present, in my opinion, dangers great enough to justify our direct military intervention. And to attempt to crush North Vietnamese strength to a point where Hanoi could no longer give any support to Vietcong political activity in the South would...have the effect of brining Chinese forces at some point...Our motives are widely misinterpreted and the spectacle of Americans inflicting grievous injury ont he lives of a poor and helpless people...produces reactions among millions of people throughout the world profoundly detrimental to the image we would like them to hold of this country//."
 * Which side do you agree with? Why?**

16. Use the map to answer the question:
 * Why would it be important yet difficult to cut off the Ho Chi Minh Trail?**

17. The election year 1968 was tumultuous. The country was divided over Vietnam. President Johnson chose not to run again. Protesters fought with police at the Democratic National Convention. Race riots erupted in several American cities and both Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy, the frontrunner in the election, were assassinated. **Why was 1968 such a year of turmoil? (A) race riots (B) war protesters fought with police at the Democrat Party convention (C) division over the war in Vietnam (D) assassinations of King and Robert Kennedy (E) all (F) none**

18. As a first step to fulfilling his campaign promise to end the war, Nixon appointed Harvard professor Henry Kissinger as special assistant for national security affairs and gave him wide authority to use diplomacy to end the conflict. Kissinger embarked upon a policy he called linkage, which meant improving relations with the Soviet Union and China - suppliers of aid to North Vietnam - so that he could persuade them to cut back on their aid. Kissinger also rekindled peace talks with the North Vietnamese. In August 1969 Kissinger entered into secret negotiations with North Vietnam's negotiator, Le Duc Tho. In their talks, which dragged on for four years, Kissinger and Le Duc Tho argued over a possible cease-fire, the return of American prisoners of war, and the ultimate fate of South Vietnam. Meanwhile, Nixon reduced the number of American troops in Vietnam. Known as Vietnamization, this process involved the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while the South Vietnamese assumed more of the fighting. This would allow South Vietnam to secure itself as long as the U.S. continued to provide air support. Cambodia bordered South Vietnam and was friendly to the Communists in North Vietnam. The Ho Chi Minh Trail from the North went through Cambodia. Nixon ordered bombings of Cambodia to clear out Vietcong sanctuaries. This was down without informing Congress or the public. When Nixon came out and announced troops going into Cambodia to clear out these sanctuaries, many viewed this as widening the war. **How would Vietnamization lead to the withdrawal of U.S. troops? (A) fighting would be turned over to the South Vietnamese with increased air support by the U.S. (B) U.S. would take over the South and control it (C) improve relations with the Soviet Union and China (D) protesters convinced the U.S. to withdraw (E) all (F) none**

19. **Nixon began secret bombings of which nation even though troops were being withdrawn, wince this nation was a safe haven for North Vietnamese. (A) USSR (B) China (C) North Korea (D) Cambodia (E) all (F) none**

20. Analyze //New York Times Co. v. United States//, 1971. In 1971, Daniel Ellsberg leaked classified documents, known as the Pentagon Papers, to the //New York Times// and the //Washington Post//. When the newspapers attempted to publish these documents, the Nixon administration argued that publication would threaten national security. The case centered on the First Amendment guarantee of a free press. In a 6-3 decision, the Supreme Court found that the Nixon administration had failed to prove that publication of the Pentagon Papers would imperil the nation in any way. The newspapers could publish the Pentagon Papers. __Supreme Court's Opinion (in favor of the newspapers)__: "The Government's power to censor the press (via the First Amendment) was abolished so that the press would remain forever free to censure the Government...And paramount among the responsibilities of a free press is the duty to prevent any part of the government from deceiving the people and sending them off to distant lands to die of foreign fevers and foreign shot and shell...far from deserving condemnation for their courageous reporting, the //New York Times// and //Washington Post//, and other newspapers should be commended for serving the purpose that the Founding Fathers saw so clearly. In revealing the workings of government that led tot he Vietnam War, the newspapers did precisely that which the Founders hoped and trusted they would do." __Dissenting view (supported the government)__: "The First Amendment, after all, is only one part of an entire Constitution. Article II of the great document vests in the Executive Branch primary power over the conduct of foreign affairs and places in that branch the responsibility for the Nation's safety...What is needed here is weighing upon properly developed standards of the broad right of the press to print and of the very narrow right of the Government to prevent. Such standards are not yet developed. The parties here are in disagreement as to what those standards should be. But even the newspapers concede that there are situations where restraint is in order and is constitutional."
 * Which side do you agree with? Why?**

21. The war in Vietnam left its mark on the nation as a whole. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act as a way to reestablish some limits on executive power. The act required the president to inform Congress of any commitment of troops abroad within 48 hours and to withdraw them in 60 to 90 days, unless Congress explicitly approved the troop commitment. No president has recognized this limitation, and the courts have tended to avoid the issue as a strictly political question. Nonetheless, every president since the law's passage has asked Congress to authorize the use of military force before committing ground troops to combat. In general, the war shook the nation's confidence and led some to embrace isolationism, while others began to question the policy of containing communism and instead urged more negotiation with the Soviet Union. On the domestic front, the Vietnam War increased Americans' cynicism about their government. Many felt the nation's leaders had misled them. Together with Watergate, Vietnam made Americans more wary of their leaders. **The War Powers Act was an impact of Vietnam, which puts restrictions on (A) power to declare war (B) presidential ability to commit troops in combat (C) spending on war (D) drafting soldiers (E) all (F) none**

22. The counterculture was the younger generation that seemed to be rebelling against their parents' generation and authority in general. Bob Dylan wrote //The Times They Are A-Changin'// that expressed this view. The lyrics go: "Come senators, congressmen Please heed the call Don't stand in the doorway Don't block up the hall Will be he who has stalled There's a battle outside And it is ragin'. It'll soon shake your windows And rattle your walls For the times they are a-changin'. Come mothers and fathers Throughout the land And don't criticize What you can't understand Your sons and your daughters Are beyond your command Your old road is Rapidly agin'. Please get out of the new one If you can't lend your hand For the times they are a-changin'.
 * How does Bob Dylan's lyrics show the attitude of the youth as rebelling against their parents and social norms of the time? (A) says the youth are running for office (B) says the government is being overthrown (C) says Vietnamese are coming to the U.S. for battle (D) says to parents your sons and daughters are beyond your command (E) all (F) none**

23. Should the Equal Rights Amendment be ratified? In the 1970s ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was a hotly debated issue. Organizations such as NOW (National Organization for Women) and other supporters of the amendment fought hard for its ratification. One of these was U.S Representative Shirley Chisholm, who spoke out in support of the ERA in a speech to Congress in 1970. In 1971, activist Phyllis Schlafly formed the group Stop-ERA to fight the legislation. YES (pass ERA) - Shirley Chisholm: "//Discrimination against women...is so widespread that it seems to many persons normal, natural and right...It is time we act to assure full equality of opportunity...to women. The argument that this amendment will not solve the problem of sex discrimination is not relevant...Of course laws will not eliminate prejudice from the hearts of human beings. But that is no reason to allow prejudice to continue to be enshrined in our laws...The Constitution they wrote was designed to protect the rights of white, male citizens. As there were no black Founding Fathers, there were no founding mothers - a great pity on both counts. It is not too late to complete the work they left undone.////"// Side note for you - African Americans and women were vital to the foundation of our nation (Absalom Jones, James Armistead, Prince Whipple, Wentworth Cheswell, Abigail Adams, Deborah Samson, Lydia Darrah). No (don't pass ERA) - Phyllis Schlafly: "//This amendment will absolutely and positively make women subject to the draft. Why any woman would support such a ridiculous and un-American proposal as this is beyond comprehension...Foxholes are bad enough for men, but they certainly are not the place for women - and we should reject any proposal which would put them there in the name of 'equal rights'...Another bad effect of the Equal Rights Amendment is that it will abolish a woman's right to child support and alimony...Under present American laws, the man is always required to support his wife and each child he caused to be brought into the world. Why should women abandon these good laws...?"//
 * Whose opinion do you agree with? Why?**

24. Until 1973, abortions were regulated by the states. By the mid-1800s, states began passing laws that only allowed abortions if the mother's life was in danger. Some states began adopting more liberal laws in terms of abortion when a pregnancy occurred by rape or incest in the 1960s. However, in 1973, in //Roe v. Wade//, the Supreme Court ruled that states could not prohibit abortions in the first two trimesters. States could ban abortions in the final three months of the pregnancy. States can put on regulations in the second trimester. Ever since, the number of abortions per year skyrocketed. **What did the Supreme Court rule in //Roe v. Wade//?**

25. As the 1960s began, Latino Americans continued to face prejudice and limited access to adequate education, employment, and housing. Encouraged by achievements of the African American civil rights movement, Latinos launched a series of campaigns to improve their economic situation and end discrimination. One major campaign was the effort to improve conditions for farmworkers. Most Mexican American farm laborers earned little pay, received few benefits, and had no job security. In the early 1960s, Cesar Chavez helped organize groups that fought for farmworkers. Chavez was a socialist but improving conditions for Latinos was most important to him. Chavez later merged with another group to form the United Farm Workers. This new union continued a boycott on grapes in California until farmworkers there saw better pay and conditions, which worked. One issue many Latino leaders promoted in the late 1960s was bilingualism or the practice of teaching immigrant children in their own language while still learning English. **Even though he was a socialist, - -- fought for Latino equality.**

26. The Soviet Union was not pleased when Nixon, a man with a history of outspoken anticommunist actions, became president. However, Nixon and Kissinger rejected the notion of a bipolar world in which the superpowers of the United States and Soviet Union confronted one another. They believed the U.S. needed to adjust to the growing role of China, Japan, and Western Europe. This emerging "multipolar" world demanded a different approach to American foreign policy. Both Nixon and Kissinger wanted to continue to contain communism, but they believed that engagement and negotiation with Communists offered a better way for the United States to achieve its international goals. As a surprised nation watched, Nixon and Kissinger put their philosophy into practice. They developed a new approach called détente, or relaxation or easing of tensions, between the U.S. and its two major Communist rivals, the Soviet Union and China. In explaining détente to the American people, Nixon said that the U.S. had to build a better relationship with its main rivals in the interest of world peace. Nixon first went to China and met with Mao Tse-tung and then went to the Soviet Union and met with Leonid Brezhnev. During Nixon's historic summit in the USSR, the two supervisors signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or SALT I, a plan to limit nuclear arms the two nations had been working on for years. Nixon and Brezhnev also agreed to increase trade and the exchange of scientific information. Détente profoundly eased tensions between the U.S. and USSR. **What was détente and how was it achieved?**

27. **What does SALT stand for? What did it do?**

28. Ever since the Pentagon Papers, Nixon worried about leaks and viewed the press as being out to get him. Before the 1972 campaign, Nixon set up a "special investigations" unit (also called "plumbers" to fix the leaks). Past presidents did similar acts. The Plumbers broke into the Watergate building in D.C., which is where the Democrat Party National Headquarters were located in May of 1972. They broke in again in June. It's unclear as to what their major objective was, but they did steal information and wiretapped phones. The group was led by G. Gordon Liddy. Evidence suggested that White House Counsel John Dean was the mastermind. Some evidence suggests that Dean wanted to get photos of a key address book that might prove his girlfriend was part of a call girl ring. A security guard found that burglars broke in and called police. Reporters took it as wanting to embarrass McGovern. The Democrat controlled Congress began to investigate. Dean told Nixon about the break-in after the fact and misled him about the purpose and convinced Nixon it was a over a national security matter. Nixon was persuaded to order a cover-up. Nixon didn't demand that Dean resign, failed to open his files to the FBI, and refused to cooperate with the investigation and media who were against Nixon. A tape recording system was in the Oval Office, which Nixon kept in since he didn't want his Vietnam policies to be misrepresented. A Congressional committee wanted the tapes. This led to a battle with Nixon refusing. John Dean would later have to testify in front of the Senate and said Nixon ordered the cover up. The Supreme Court ordered the tapes to be turned over. One of the tapes had Nixon in a conversation about Watergate and then suddenly it went blank for 18 minutes before conversation resumed. Nixon's secretary took the heat saying the pause button was accidently pressed. However, evidence shows that it was purposely erased. Nixon fired the special prosecutor (Archibald Cox). He had first ordered the attorney general, Elliot Richardson, to fire Cox, but Richardson refused and then resigned. Then the deputy attorney general, William Ruckelshaus, refused to fire Cox, and resigned. This became known as the Saturday Night Massacre and produced outrage in Congress. With no support from Congress or the media, Nixon went to the American people and gave a speech saying "I am not a crook," but the public abandoned him. With the Middle East in turmoil, oil prices skyrocketed in 1973, inflation soared, and the economy (Nixon's only hope for political survival) went down. Before the House of Representatives could vote on articles of impeachment, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974. Gerald Ford was sworn into office on that date. **What was the Watergate Scandal and what were the results?**

29. **Why was John Dean's testimony most damaging?**

30. **Do you think the Supreme Court was correct in forcing Nixon to turn over the tapes? Why?**

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