US_Ch5_info

=**Building America into a World Power (1896-1912)**=

**Election of 1896:**
In 1896, the Republicans nominated **William McKinley** to run against the Democrat nominee **William Jennings Bryan**. The major __issues of the day__ included the tariff (Republicans had supported a tariff and Democrats against) and economics especially the gold vs. silver debate (Republicans supported the gold standard while Democrats wanted money based on silver). McKinley staged a Front Porch Campaign while William Jennings Bryan traveled the nation giving speeches, which became a modern trend when running for the presidency. In their campaigns, both candidates used the counter-crusade method of pointed out the faults of their opponent. This wasn't the first negative campaign, but it is something else that has become a trend in modern campaigns (not just presidential). McKinley's campaign manager, **Mark Hanna**, a Standard Oil executive, helped McKinley raise a lot of money and McKinley was able to greatly outspend Bryan, yet another trend in the modern run for the presidency, the need for a lot of campaign cash. McKinley won the election showing that the Republican bloc was the North, northern Midwest, and Pacific coast with support of business, professionals, skilled factory workers, and prosperous farmers, while the Democrats had support in the South, rural Midwest, and the Rocky Mountain states getting support from Populists and Silverites. McKinley won the electoral vote 271-176 and the popular vote 7.1 million to 6.5 million. The Republican Party lost seats in the House to Democrats and Populists but the Republicans still held a majority (loss of seats most likely attributed to such large gains in 1894 in which normally Democratic districts switched to Republican due to fallout from the Panic of 1893). Republicans also held a slim majority in the Senate.

William McKinley was born in Ohio and rew up a Methodist. His abolition sentiment led him to favor the Union in the Civil War in which he fought, rising to the rank of major. Since then, he became known as Major McKinley. He met his wife, Ida, after the war, who was a prohibitionist (one who wanted alcohol to be illegal). He practiced law after the war and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1872 where he fought for the protective tariff, which he believed benefitted laborers. The McKinley Tariff is named after him since he pushed for it during the Harrison Administration (which hurt Harrison's bid for re-election). McKinley though went on to be elected governor of Ohio. It wasn't till he was in office as president that he __started to see the value of free trade and backed away from his stance on the tariff__. Being an abolitionist and Union veteran, McKinley sympathized with blacks in the Jim Crow era and appointed several African-Americans to positions in the government. McKinley spoke in favor of rights for blacks, but also didn't want to return America to the Reconstruction policies. Foreign policy would dominate the McKinley Administration.

**Gaining Interests Overseas:**
The spotlight of the McKinley administration was on foreign affairs, especially Hawaii and Cuba. Some refer to this era as American **Imperialism** due to the extension of America's power to other lands, which was something embraced in Europe first. Others refer to this time period as an Age of Optimism as America was spreading its ideals and values. There were certainly economic benefits of expansion including new markets and raw materials in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. There were military benefits since in order to be a world power there was a need for naval bases for coaling stations. Nationalism, or pride in one's nation could also be attributed since Americans were proud of their nation and their freedoms and looking to expand those ideals. Finally, Christian churches saw the possibility of spreading Christianity around the world.

In **Hawaii** (also called the Sandwich Islands), American sailors, traders, and missionaries were interested in their work. The islands were rich in sugar, fruit, and other products and tariff favors had been given to encourage more trade with Hawaii. American business interests soon controlled important sugar plantations. With tacit (supporting without openly saying) U.S. support, there would be a rebellion in Hawaii against **Queen Liliuokalani**. America was partially involved, but the Queen wanted to overthrow the "Bayonet Constitution," that her brother was forced to sign in 1887, which gave foreigners the right to vote. The new Hawaiian government sent a treaty of annexation to D.C. but Harrison, who had lost the election and was a lame duck (since Cleveland would soon be coming back into office) sent it to the Senate. When Cleveland (who was against expansion) came back into office, he sent a team to determine reasons for the rebellion and they concluded that it was an American plot (this would be their conclusions regardless of if it was or wasn't). American business gets blamed by many history books, but what is missed is that Hawaii made an attempt in 1851 to become part of the U.S. but Secretary of State Daniel Webster declined since he didn't want a precedent (action that sets a model for similar future decisions) that might allow more slave territories outside of the U.S. In addition, western sugar beet interests in the U.S. opposed bringing in Hawaiian sugar cane. Japan had sent warships to Hawaii seeing U.S. presence as a threat to there sphere of influence. McKinley didn't want to allow Japan to take the islands. A joint resolution was sent to McKinley, which he signed July 7, 1898 bring in Hawaii as a territory.

China was under **Spheres of Influence** in which European nations dominated parts of China economically by taking raw materials from their respective spheres in China. Secretary of State **John Hay** pushed for an **Open Door Policy** in China in which nations would not interfere with any treaty or port and allow Chinese authorities to control their own trade and tariffs. It would be a process but eventually China was controlling its own economics.

**Spanish-American War:**
The bigger problem facing American policy was conflict between Spain and Cuba. For 40 years, the U.S. entertained the idea of purchasing Cuba, but Spain had no interest in selling. There were several American concerns: (1) the political component of Americans sympathizing with Cubans wanted independence; (2) economic interests with sugar, railroads, and shipping, and (3) the moral issue of General Valeriano Weyler, or the Butcher, who was cruel to the Cubans. However, American support for the rebels in Cuba may have ended if not for newspapermen **Joseph Pulitzer** and **William Randolph Hearst**. Pulitzer's main paper the //New York// //World// was printed on cheap yellow paper featuring a cartoon character, "the Yellow Kid," which led to the phrase "Yellow Press" or "Yellow Journalism" although the term would take on a different meaning of reporting with even made up stories to attract readers. Hearst had become a competitor with the //New York Journal//. Pulitzer and Hearst did have some things in common, one of which was seeing the Cuban chaos as a tragedy and a chance to expand circulation. The Cuban suffering and reports on it advanced sales, but a war would be even better. Hearst sent artist Frederic Remington to Cuba to provide battle sketches even before there was any fighting. He reported to Hearst that there was no war to illustrate. Hearst replied "You furnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war." Each publisher tried to outdo the other with Spanish atrocities even giving Weyler his nickname, Butcher, and referring to Cuba as a prison (ironically more present day media doesn't call Castro's Communist Cuba a prison, which it certainly is). However, influence of the media to go to war has been overemphasized. Many mainstream papers like the //New York Times// supported McKinley's caution. Furthermore, business pushing for war has also been overstated since as many businesses opposed war as favored. There were cases made for going to war by such prominent figures as Alfred Thayer Mahan, John Hay, and Theodore Roosevelt (assistant Secretary of the Navy at this point) who all argued for need for humanitarian relief for suffering Cubans, need for military bases, and the eviction of Old World powers (Spain), as well as good old-fashioned expansion.

The Spanish minister to D.C. Dupuy de Lome wrote a letter than ended up on a desk at the //New York Journal// thanks to Cuban rebels and their contacts back home. The headline would read: WORST INSULT TO THE UNITED STATES IN ITS HISTORY. Reporting of the letter said it called McKinley "weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crown who played both sides of the war issue." McKinley demanded an apology and Spain's delayed apology made them look belligerent. McKinley then sent the battleship **//Maine//** to Havana to make a courtesy call and the ship's presence seemed uncontroversial until the evening of February 15, 1898 when an explosion slowly sank the ship and killed 260 crewmen. This explosion came shortly after the de Lome letter was made public. Even though the letter had been written months before it was made public, McKinley felt the two events were linked and ordered an investigation knowing that conclusions would saw the blask originated outside of the ship. Most Americans began to think Spain was involved and that McKinley was blocking a necessary war. There is no proof of Spain's involvement (though an inquiry in 1910 of the ship's remains seemed to confirm it was a mine) on April 20, 1898 Congress handed McKinley a war resolution along with the **Teller Amendment**, which said the U.S. would liberate Cuba five years after occupation. Some history sources say American wanted an empire, but no empire binds itself to leave conquered lands. America was looking to help Cuba gain independence and re-establish normal relations.

As in the Mexican War with Mexico, world powers expected America to be defeated by the larger power, in this case Spain. McKinley called for 200,000 volunteers and got 223,000 including **Theodore Roosevelt** who would lead the famous **Rough Riders**, the First Volunteer cavalry unit. Equipping and transporting the army of volunteers was difficult. The U.S. trailed Spain in terms of army, but America's naval cruisers outranged and outgunned Spain's. Commodore **George Dewey** headed the Asiatic squadron and fought the Spanish in Manila Bay (Philippines). Spain fired first and Americans shouted "Remember the Maine." Dewey told the //Olympia's// captain (line used countless times on TV) "You may fire when ready." Dewey would win the Battle of Manila Bay and helped secure the Philippines. Along with fighting in the Philippines, there was also an assault on Cuba against the Spanish. General William Shafter landed unopposed as ex-Rebel General Joseph Wheeler shouted "We've got the Yankees on the run," though his men knew what he meant. Americans in Cuba were faced with Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders went up Kettle Hill and defeated the Spanish. San Juan Heights were impenetrable until a courageous captain, G.S. Grimes, drove three batteries of Gatling guns within 600 yards of the Spanish (Remington got this moment in a memorable painting). The Americans were ready to go up San Juan Hill and defeated the Spanish. Of the fighting John Pershing (who would later gain fame in WWI) said "White regiments, black regiments, regulars and Rough Riders, representing the young manhood of the North and the South, fought shoulder to shoulder, unmindful of race or color, unmindful of whether commanded by ex-Confederate or not, mindful of only their common duty as Americans. Shafter, battling gout and heat, surrounded Santiago. Spain tried to escape but the American navy was in the harbor. Spain surrendered.

Of Americans 300,000 total soldiers, a little more than 3,000 were killed and a little more than 1,600 wounded. However, there was a high cost to America in that thousands of soldiers were mobilized who never saw action but collected pensions, which in total would bring the cost in pensions to a total of $5 billion. The **Treaty of Paris** would be the agreement at the end of the war. Cuba would be free and the U.S. would give Spain $20 million for Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Under other circumstances, the Philippines would have been independent, but the U.S. needed coaling stations and the Philippines would be a logical extension of Hawaii. On the Philippines, President McKinley said "...one night it came to me this way...(1) we could not give them [the Philippines] back to Spain, but that would be cowardly and dishonorable; (2) that we could not turn them over to France or Germany - our commercial rivals in the Orient - that would be bad business and discreditable; (3) that we could not leave them to themselves - they were unfit for self-government - and they would soon have anarchy and misrule over there worse than Spain's was; and (4) that there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them." Some historians dismiss Christianizing the Filipinos as an excuse for economic expansion, but genuine doctrinal sources show commitment of most Christian groups to evangelize other lands. On the other hand, Filipinos felt betrayed and an insurrection would last for a year and a half. William Taft was sent to gain reasonable steps to reduce opposition, which he accomplished. McKinley's policy opened the door to anti-imperialists like William Jennings Bryan, the Populists, and the Anti-Imperialist League who encouraged soldiers on the Philippines not to re-enlist and compared McKinley to a mass murderer. Filipino insurrgents quoted Bryan to inspire the rebels, which prolonged conflict. An anti-insurrectionist group (Maccabees) captured the insurgency leader who swore an loyalty to the U.S. in April of 1901. The U.S. gained Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and later part of Samoa as territories. Overall, an important result of the war was that America emerged as a world power with overseas territories.

**America at the Turn of the Century:**
A popular 1901 magazine, //Current Literature,// went through census data and said that the typical man was of British ancestry, traces of German, 5-9, with 3 living children and 1 that died in infancy, Protestant Republican, living in a 2-story, 7 room house. At the time, city males earned on average $750 a year while farmers earned $550. The standard income for industrial workers was $559/year; gas and electric workers was $543/year, lower skilled labor was $483/year - all averages; more unusual or exceptional work of course earned more. The important point too is that everyone and anyone had (and still has) the opportunity to work in whatever field he or she chooses. Spending included on average $30/year on clothes, $82/year on food, $4/year on the doctor and dentist, $9 to religion. Though some contended that the wages were too low, they certainly allowed workers to live within their means. Working women earned on average $365/year and even though on average women were paid less than men, they were still paid more than European men. Socialists (those who favor redistribution of wealth - take from the haves and give to the have nots), including Leon Trotsky (one of the founders of Communist Russia) were baffled by American progress, which was a result of a 30 year spurt with only 2 panics. American innovation allowed factory workers to maintain rising wages, agriculture consistently expanded production, and generated enough wealth for immigrants to keep coming. Critics of the time period point to cases of poverty, greed, graft, and corruption of businesses, but cannot answer the question of if it was so bad then why did immigrants continue to come to America.

The **Progressive Era** in American history is given to the time period in the 1890s through the early 1900s. It was a period of social activism and reform. Reforming problems in the workplace, society (slum areas), and government were target areas for progressives. This era would be marked by reforms but also by an increase in government control over individual liberties. To many, science became the new god and theories of Darwin, Marx, and Freud convinced people that only those things one could prove by experimentation were valid. **Frederick Taylor**, the "Efficiency Expert," wrote //The Principles of Scientific Management//, which discussed how businesses could become more efficient by using the assembly line, efficient management of time and cost, proper work scheduling, using standardized tools and that the government could become more efficient as well. Science and professionalism were combined to the impulse of reform convincing the public that there was a solution to every problem. Some of the ideas of the Populists would find their way into existence in the Progressive Era. Two writers, Walter Lippman and William James contributed to the consensus that man was in charge. It was the progressive view that government should reside in the hands of reformers who would focus on social issues. James had been exposed to the ideas of European intellectuals he met on trips. Through the years, he moved away from spiritualism and he studied psychology. He wrote two famous works: //Principles of Psychology// and //Pragmatism//. There would be several figures born between 1874 and 1890 who reflected the continued trend away from the search for God. Progressives found allies in journalists. In general, journalism had secularized (non-religious) at a shocking rate by the late 1800s. Journalism moved to the notions of science, planning, and human control. Typical of the new journalistic Progressives was Walter Lippman, a former Socialist and founder of the Harvard Socialist Club and also Lincoln Steffens's (name learned later) secretary had abandoned Socialism in favor of the more moderate Progressivism (which shows that elements of Socialism will be involved with some elements of Progressivism). However, even though intellectuals bought into the new secular scientific approach to life's challenges, middle America did not.

The Progressive Era gained popularity with the help of the **Muckrakers**, writers who thrived on exposing scandal. The term comes from a speech by Theodore Roosevelt referring to a character in John Bunyan's //Pilgrim's Progress//. //McClure's Magazine// was known for publishing muckraker articles and is widely considered to be the start of muckraker publishing. Muckrakers focused on problems such as poverty and slum areas, problems of the work place including child labor and unsafe conditions, and corruption within government. There were numerous muckrakers. Among the most notable were **Jacob Riis**, a photographer and journalist, who wrote about and gave speeches of the problems facing slums and immigrants. One of his famous writings was //How the Other Half Lives//. His works are often credited with bringing about child labor laws, neighborhood parks, school playgrounds, and other attempts to improve society. **Ida Tarbell** wrote about the formation of Standard Oil and criticized Rockefeller and his formation of a trust, which in part led to the breaking apart of Standard Oil after an antitrust suit. **Lincoln Steffens** wrote about corruption at the local level of government in cities. Steffens had visited the Soviet Union (communist Russia) in 1919 and believed it was a good system and when he came back to America had said "I have seen the future, and it works" about the Soviet system. Steffens would add to the socialist element that would grow within the progressive movement. **Upton Sinclair**, wrote //The Jungle//, about the unsanitary conditions in Chicago's meatpacking plants, which would lead to new health laws. Like Steffens, Sinclair held socialist beliefs. He formed the Helicon Home Colony in New Jersey, which burned down under suspicious circumstances within a year. Sinclair made a run for Congress as a Socialist, which like Steffens shows that the socialist component had become at least part of the progressive movement. In addition to the Muckrakers, a fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company saw the deaths of 146 employees and led to stricter building codes, workers' compensation, and accident insurance systems. **Louis Brandeis** emerged as a major Progressive lawyer who argued for many Progressive causes in court. He would be appointed to the Supreme Court in 1916. The major negative component brought by some muckrakers was socialism.

Blacks were still being segregated and discriminated against in the South legally with the Jim Crow laws. Even in the North, some Progressives used IQ tests to segregate education and keep the races apart. The federal government had contributed to the issue in the **//Plessy v. Ferguson//** Supreme Court ruling in 1893 ruling that blacks were "separate but equal" and allowing the Jim Crow laws. In 1909, a group known as the Niagara Movement combined to form the **NAACP** (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). One of the leaders was W.E.B. du Bois. In cities, blacks moved to certain sections and the result was a very dense population in a small amount of area. For example, in Harlem, there were 336 people per acre, compared to Philadelphia of 111 per acre and Chicago 67 per acre. Outside of the cities, blacks realized that their buying power gave them leverage. Many set up their own insurance companies, developed important networks, and formed all-black labor unions, but the greatest achievement of the black community was in Georgia where blacks built 1,544 schools that educated over 11,000. There were numerous black universities as well. Three different groups had ideas on how blacks could best gain civil rights. One was the idea of **Booker T. Washington**, who talked about slow, steady economic progress. He helped form **Tuskegee Institute** to teach blacks skills. He felt that education was the key for blacks to improve their situation. Opponents of Washington saw his method as too slow. Second was the idea of W.E.B. du Bois who was a Harvard-educated black who studied under William James. He was also one of the founders of the NAACP. He rejected Washington's idea and instead urged blacks to advance their economic and political power through what he called the Talented Tenth, a group of black intellectual and economic elites. The third idea was that of Marcus Garvey who led the Universal Negro Improvement Association, said blacks needed to reclaim their home continent, Africa, and establish themselves through achievements. His idea was black nationalism and unlike Washington, he didn't think blacks and whites could live together. The movement grew rapidly, but then decline once Garvey was imprisoned for mail fraud.

**Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt:**
President McKinley was running for re-election in 1900 but needed a new vice presidential running mate due to the death of Garret A. Hobart. **Theodore Roosevelt** had served in the New York legislature, then was NYC police commissioner, and eventually governor. At the federal level, he served as assistant Secretary of the Navy before resigning to command the Rough Riders. McKinley met TR when he went to congratulate General Shafter and his troops and when he saw TR, he stopped the carriage to shade his hand. Roosevelt was put on the ticket as McKinley's running mate. With TR on the ballot, a good economy, and conclusion of a successful war, McKinley was unbeatable and again defeated William Jennings Bryan worse than in 1896 with a 292 to 155 electoral vote and 7.2 million to 6.3 million in the popular vote. The Republicans held their majority in the House and Senate gaining a few seats. In September of 1901, President McKinley too a trip to the Pan American Exposition in Buffalo. Several prank letters threatening assassination came during the campaign, but McKinley dismissed them. However, such threats alamred his private secretary George Cortelyou, who screened visitors on his own and had a private investigator follow McKinley. The police were on alert in Buffalo, but McKinley refused to be sealed from the public and agreed to a long reception line at one of the exposition buildings, the Music Temple. Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, was there and had a concealed gun in his bandaged right hand. As McKinley shook his left hand, Czolgosz shot the president twice. McKinley told Cortelyou to be careful how he told his wife. Efforts to locate the bullet failed despite the presence of a new x-ray machine. Doctors cleaned and closed the wound without extracting the bullet. He gained consciousness giving everyone hope before drifting away after a week. NYC papers engaged in finger pointing as to whether or not the press was partly to blame. Some editorials had called for McKinley's removal and Hearst had even said "assassination can be a good thing." Czolgosz wanted to cause all government to collapse but only succeeded in replacing a successful president with a legendary one. Roosevelt became president at age 42 making him the youngest president in our history. TR increased the power of the presidency believing he could do anything not prohibited by the Constitution.

Theodore Roosevelt, or "Teddy" even though he didn't like it was described as muscular, strong, and tough, full of energy, and distinct pronunciation ("I" like "aieee"). As a child, he spent summers working out and boxing to build his body. He even boxed at Harvard. He was able to overcome asthma and poor eyesight. In the NYC legislature, he began several municipal reform bills. Assemblyman Newton Curtis called TR a "brilliant madman born a century too soon." He had left politics for his cattle ranch in Elkhorn, ND after the death of his wife, mother of typhoid fever, and brother a few years later who was an alcoholic. He got back into politics when President Harrison appointed TR to the Civil Service Commission. As police commissioner, TR walked the slum areas of the city and even met the muckrakers Jacob Riis and Lincoln Steffens. In the New York legislature, TR looked for reforms and genuinely believed no one would benefit by riches if their prosperity corrupted their virtue. TR had come from "old money," which partly explains his antipathy toward corporations and "new money" like that of Rockefeller and Carnegie who built their fortunes from the ground up (TR never had the chance to be a successful businessman).

President Roosevelt had a reform impulse and became an activist president. If there was an indication that TR favored regulation of business, it came from when he was New York governor as he pushed through a measure taxing corporations. In his first inaugural address, TR spoke favorably of great corporations and endorsed the idea of expanding markets, but also added that he felt trusts had gone beyond capacity of existing laws. Sensing change, Congress passed the **Elkins Act** in 1903, which prohibited railroads from giving rebates, many thought only favored large corporations. The notion that businesses needed penalized for success beyond what was "reasonable" was a Progressive principle that soon emerged in many new regulations. TR would be called a trustbuster due to his Progressive principle concerning business regulation. He went after the **Northern Securities** trust in 1902. This trust contained the Northern Pacific Railroad, Great Northern Railroad, and Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad. The trust was run by J.P. Morgan, James J. Hill, E.H. Harriman, and representatives of Standard Oil. It was a single holding company worth $400 million. Although the government said the company sought to form a monopoly, no higher rates actually emerged. The company was forced to split up in violation of antitrust laws. This was the first time the government acted against commerce on a potential threat, not genuine behavior. Unlike individuals, corporations were not innocent until proven guilty. TR got his **trustbuster** nickname after winning the suit. Research, however, found that antitrust actions tended to hurt the little guy - small businesses - by driving down profits in the entire sector. TR got away with his assault on corporations by balancing it with rhetoric about the need to control labor radicalism. TR invoked the Sherman Act 25 times as president.

Roosevelt tended to side with labor in disputes as seen in the **Coal Strike** of 1902. Miners wanted union recognition along with higher pay and less hours. TR invited United Mine Workers leaders and mine owners to the White House to avoid a coal shortage with winter coming. TR threatened to take over the mines with the army and said "To heck with the Constitution when people want coal!" Both sides agreed to arbitration. The miners got wage increases (less than they wanted) and less hours (more than they wanted). TR claimed that he brokered a "square deal," which became a campaign slogan in his 1904 re-election. TR had said "We don't wish to destroy corporations, but we do wish to make them serve the public good," as if furnishing jobs, paying taxes, and creating new wealth did not constitute a sufficient public benefit. TR corresponded with business leaders going into the 1904 election to mend fences though he knew Democrats had allied themselves with radical elements of labor and farm sectors. The Democrats knew it too, so they moved away from Bryan and went with conservative New York judge Alton Parker. Socialist Eugene V. Debs took 400,000 votes giving Democrats no chance. TR won and the Republicans increased control in both houses of Congress. Again, TR turned on business, especially railroads. The **Hepburn Act** passed, which allowed the Interstate Commerce Commission to set railroad rates. Also, as a result of reading Upton Sinclair's //The Jungle// led to the passing of the **Pure Food and Drug Act**, which put restrictions on makers of food and medicine and set up the **FDA** (Food and Drug Administration). Also, the **Meat Inspection Act** passed requiring federal inspection of mea and set up sanitation standards. In his second term, TR gravitated away from the tariff and saw benefits of free trade (like McKinley). The Dingley Tariff provoked foreign responses in the form of higher rates on American goods, which led former tariff advocates to see the consequences. TR left the tariff issue for his successor.

Conserving natural resources became a turn of the century movement. First in 1891, Harrison and after him Cleveland set aside 35 million acres of public lands as forest reserves. Interest increased with a summer camp movement in the 1890s. Once TR was in office, he set up the Forest Service headed by **Gifford Pinchot** of Pennsylvania. Naturalists, artists, and anthropologists pushed for Progressive management techniques toward natural resources, a movement that had origins with John Muir. He was an Indianapolis carriage worker who was almost blinded in a factory accident and when his sight returned, he went to America's natural wonders. He went on trips to Yosemite, Sierra-Nevada Mountains, Alaska, and Glacier Bay and wrote several articles. Later, his articles were put in //Century// magazine, which drew attention about the devastation of mountain meadows and forests by sheep and cattle. Muir and //Century// editor Robert Underwood Johnson formed the Sierra Club in 1892 to protect natural resources and public parks. However, there was a difference between Muir (and other environmentalists) and TR: __Muir was a preservationist who saw a natural world without any development__ whereas TR felt that wise use of natural resources was best. For example, TR felt water for cities was just as good as water for trees. Muir would believe water should be preserved for trees. Different than Muir (and many modern environmentalists), TR and Pinchot saw the use of nature by people as the primary reason for preserving nature. Pinchot wrote that development was the first principle of conservation and the use of natural resources now existing on the continent was for the benefit of the people here and now. TR went far setting aside 200 million acres of public land (more than 1/3 in Alaska) as natural forests and other reserved sites. This overthrew a Jeffersonian principle that the land belonged in the hands of the people individually rather than the people as a whole. TR felt that only the public sector (government) could regulate the harvesting of ore and timber, which was an elitist Progressive view. One fact Progressives leave out is that they claim the western settlers killed off the buffalo while the natives were environmentalists. On the contrary, the natives often left the buffalo on the side of the road to rot. Western American and Canadians together began to herd and breed the buffalo. Yellowstone bought the bison and other national parks were set up.

Roosevelt's quote on foreign policy was "speak softly and carry a big stick." This **Big Sticky Policy** meant that the U.S. would work for peace but would have a strong military (particularly navy) ready in case it is needed. As a Progressive, TR believed in aggressive intervention. The building of the **Panama Canal** is an example of this policy. Before the canal, ships had to either go around South America or had to stop, unload, transport by rail, then reload on the other side. France had the right to a canal in the region but finances kept them from completing the project. Secretary of State John Hay negotiated an agreement to purchase the rights and to get a 99 year lease on the zone for $10 million down and $250,000 per year. Columbia had control of the reason and had turned down the U.S. but a revolution led to the formation of independent Panama, which allowed the U.S. to build the canal. A series of locks were built and the canal opened August 15, 1914. TR also issued the **Roosevelt Corollary** after his re-election stating that the U.S. would intervene if European nations got involved in the western hemisphere. President Roosevelt mediated the **Treat of Portsmouth**, which ended a war between Japan and Russia (Russo-Japanese War 1904-5). As a result, TR won the Nobel Peace Prize.

**Presidency of William Taft:**
A prosperous economy had kept TR's economic policies and attacks on business from scrutiny, but the **Panic of 1907** threatened to change that as the financial market collapsed. The real blow took place in October of 1907 when the Knickerbocker Trust Company closed and New York banks shifted funds from bank to bank to hold off large banks runs. J.P. Morgan again came in to bail out the financial market. By 1908, more than a few Republicans concluded that TR's anti-business views contributed to the effects of the downturn and damaged American enterprise. TR did not seek re-election in 1908, but named **William Taft** as his successor. Taft would be the Republican nominee against William Jennings Bryan (Democrat). Taft's goal was to be on the Supreme Court, but his wife pushed him to run for president. The Republicans lost a small number of seats in Congress, but still held both chambers. Taft defeated Bryan in Bryan's worst loss of his three runs.

One problem that carried over from TR was the tariff issue. Republicans under McKinley and TR moved the party more toward a lower tariff. However, Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon favored a high tariff and used his power to control the House agenda. Taft supported anti-Cannon forces called "insurgents" who had just enough of a margin to swing the vote away from Cannon to remain as Speaker. Taft's support was short-sighted. Cannon let it be known that he would hold the tariff issue hostage if Taft didn't support him. Taft felt he had no choice and Cannon was re-elected Speaker by the House of Representatives. So, Taft had to support a Speaker who despised him while he alienated the insurgents who now distrusted him. It's hard to say how TR would've handled it, but he certainly would've surmised Cannon then double-crossed him. Taft was more naive. In addition, insurgents lost committee power and the party said it would only support "loyal" candidates in the next elections. Taft's political ineptness cut insurgents at the knees.

There were three defining moments of the Taft Administration. One was the tariff revision issue, which was a major topic of the day. Many former supporters of the tariff saw that it had outlived its usefulness (many argued that it never gained what it was suppose to), but getting rid of it was a different matter. Government revenues had slowed up with the lack of land sales due to TR setting aside large amounts of land and the entire west was almost completely settled. Getting rid of the tariff would mean replacing it with some other source of revenue. An income tax was the suggestion, but the Constitution would have to be amended to allow Congress to collect an income tax since the courts had ruled income taxes as unconstitutional. The **Payne-Aldrich Bill** passed which lowered tariff rates a little, but Taft came out of the situation as a weaker leader. Second was the continuation of trust-busting (Taft outdid TR in total number of suits). The break up of Standard Oil was completed by the courts in 1911 under Taft. TR called it a "bad trust" distinguishing it from a "good trust" which shows the government was determining when businesses succeeded too much. Taft actually stumbled into attacking TR when he pursued the U.S. Steel company in an anti-trust case since he was unaware TR had approved of U.S. Steel. TR began to criticize Taft. Third was the Ballinger-Pinchot controversy. Gifford Pinchot, a friend of TR, was head of the Forestry Service, and favored preserving the environment whereas Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger preferred development and use of government land. Ballinger thought setting aside lands was illegal and reopened lands to pubic entry. Pinchot branded him an enemy of conservation. An Interior Department employee, Louis Glavis, said Ballinger gave rights to Alaskan coal lands to Seattle business interests (Ballinger was from Seattle), including some that he had done legal work for in the past. Pinchot urged Glavis to take the matter to Taft. The president concluded that Ballinger acted properly and fired Glavis as much for disloyalty as anything. Glavis tried to destroy Taft and Ballinger by writing in //Collier's// (1909) about the land/coal deal. Taft tried to keep Pinchot clear of controversy and told him to stay clear of the whole Glavis affair. Instead, Pinchot supplied the material for Glavis's articles from his own office. Then, seeking to be a martyr for conservation, Pinchot gave Congress evidence that he was the one who gave the information. Taft had no choice but to fire Pinchot. Investigations showed that Ballinger was innocent of all charges, but the situation damaged Taft. Taft's ineptness, with the Ballinger-Pinchot controversy, and his decision to oppose the insurgents left him weakened. The Democrats took the House in 1910 and the Senate was technically under Republican control, but really controlled by Progressive Republicans and Democrats. Other events in the Taft Administration included the formation of the **Department of Labor** to enforce labor laws. Also, New Mexico and Arizona became states. Going into 1912, Taft was damaged since Progressivism was growing and TR was speaking against Taft and the Democrats were searching for someone new to run for office.

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